پژوهشنامه مذاهب اسلامی
پیاپی 19 (بهار و تابستان 1402)

In the epistemic system of Islamic mysticism, any name, attribute, or feature about the divine essence is negated. In fact, the stage of God’s essence is deemed free from any rulings. For this reason, some people have assumed that no name or word can refer to the stage of essence, even words such as “essence” (dhāt) itself or the ultra-hidden essence. This article provides an overview of the views of mystics through a descriptive-analytical method, concluding that such an understanding is an instance of the fallacy of equivocity between the ordinary sense of the “name” and its mystical sense, since mystics do not have ordinary names in mind when they negate them from God’s essence. They refer to the ultra-hidden stage through different words. When they say that this stage is without any name or pattern, they negate the mystical sense of name from this stage, rather than a name that merely refers to the essence, without constraining it. Furthermore, a scrutiny of the works of mystics reveals that the stage of the essence is free from rulings in the sense that the stage of the ultra-hidden essence admits of no constraints or restrictions. Put differently, since it has no peculiarities or specificities, it admits of no specific rulings. Such rulings apply only when we descend from the stage of essence down to the stage of particular determinations. At this stage, constrained, restricted, and specific rulings apply to the determinate or constraint essence, rather than the absolute essence. However, absolute non-restricted rulings, which do not divest the essence of its absoluteness, can be predicated of the essence

An important issue regarding Quranic verses and hadiths revolves around the concepts of muḥkamāt (clear) and mutashābihāt (ambiguous). Exegetical controversies often arise when dealing with ambiguous Quranic verses, particularly those related to God's narrated (khabarī) attributes. Interestingly, the same Quranic verse can be considered clear by some groups and ambiguous by others. Doctrinal Salafists, such as Ibn al-Taymiyya and his followers, employ two different approaches when interpreting Quranic verses concerning attributes and those addressing other matters. Regarding divine names and attributes, these scholars strictly reject any form of interpretation. They argue that interpretive meanings are merely probabilistic and, in the context of religious doctrines, such probabilistic beliefs cannot be relied upon, as it would risk ascribing anthropomorphic qualities to God. In this article, we utilize the library method and reference the perspectives of Sunni scholars to analyze the Salafi perspective on narrated attributes. Through our examination, we present counterarguments to their view, highlighting inconsistencies between their theory and practice, distortions of words and meanings, and a failure to adhere to the teachings of early scholars (salaf). We conclude that by disregarding sound rational practices supported by religious textual evidence, Salafists have encountered numerous contradictions

Will is a divine attribute, the subject of which is in the world of the second determination (al-taʿaayyun al-thānī) and which manifests in the form of divine epistemic truths called “fixed entities” (al-aʿyān al-thābita). It also appears in the worldly manifestations of these entities such as humans and jinn. Will is one of the most eminent divine attributes. More importantly, this attribute is ascribed to the divine realm in one respect and to the manifestations and shadows of the divine realm and the fixed entities; which are outside of the divine stage, namely humans. There is a relationship between divine will and human free will. Islamic mysticism as a well-establish discipline is concerned with this issue. In this article, we overview the life and character of al-Shaykh Ṣadr al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Isḥāq al-Qūnawī. Moreover, we discuss one of the main tenets of the intellectual system of Ibn al-ʿArabī and al-Qūnawī; that is, the “fixed entities” (also known as mystical “secrets of al-qadr” or “truths of beings in the second determination) that serve as existential realms for the manifestation of divine attributes, including His will. Given the relationship between the fixed entities and divine names, we outline both topics. Furthermore, we refer to how divine attributes relate to the fixed entities as well as their relationship with the inherent dispositions within the fixed entities from al-Qūnawī’s perspective. We argue that, according to al-Qūnawī, there is a difference between the wills of non-instantiated humans who have not attained the stage of intuiting the divine knowledge or the world of the fixed entities (in the second determination) and the will of God because the former involves indeterminacies and doubts. This is because doubts serve as the origins of our free will and our power of choice, while is not the case for God. However, in the case of those humans who have attained the stage of the second determination, which is the realm of the fixed entities, their will is identical with the divine will.

The problem of divine essence and attributes is widely recognized as one of the most significant issues in theoretical and transmitted disciplines. Understanding the nature of God provides motivation for a deep connection with the absolute perfection, whereas worship based on ignorance is less effective in this regard. Consequently, the discussion surrounding God's essence and the characterization of its attributes holds great significance. In fact, the problem of divine essence and attributes can be categorized into three distinct areas: semantics, ontology, and epistemology. Regarding semantics, there exist multiple accounts. The attributes commonly referred to as the "seven attributes"—knowledge, power, hearing, seeing, will, life, and word—can be understood through mystical, philosophical, theological, and sharia perspectives. Furthermore, the ontology of attributes and their connection to the divine essence encompass various dimensions. One aspect involves the identification of the essence and attributes, which entails the rejection of the independent existence of the attributes. This viewpoint is shared among adherents of sharia, philosophers, and mystics. According to Ashʿarite theologians, including Fakhr al-Rāzī, the divine attributes are dependent on the divine essence, resulting in their distinction. On the other hand, Miʿtazilites purportedly assert that the essence serves as a representation of the attributes. Fakhr al-Rāzī himself holds distinctive perspectives, such as emphasizing the relational nature of knowledge and the intrinsic nature of the divine word. Additionally, in his definition of power, he includes the permissibility of both action and omission within the actions of a free agent. This article explores Fakhr al-Rāzī's viewpoints regarding the semantics and ontology of the essence and attributes.

This article seeks to explore the relationship between God's essence and His attributes from the perspective of Fakhr al-Rāzī, with a specific focus on essential divine attributes. In examining Fakhr al-Rāzī's views, we observe that he often simplifies various theological disagreements pertaining to divine attributes by reducing them to verbal issues. However, he does not consistently apply this approach universally, as he also delves into ontological investigations of divine attributes and essence in several instances. In his examination of general and specific arguments concerning the attribution of each attribute to God, Fakhr al-Rāzī endeavors to challenge the notion of identity between the essence and the attributes. Despite being an Ashʿarite theologian, he finds the arguments against this identification to be insufficient and occasionally leans toward affirming their identity. However, in order to reconcile these divergent perspectives, he ultimately supports the distinction between divine attributes and God's essence, while addressing the inherent issues associated with this distinction by positing that the attributes are dependent on the essence. This perspective implies that the essence has brought forth the attributes, aligning closely with the viewpoint espoused by Muslim mystics.

This article aims to provide an overview of the perspectives held by non-Shiite theological and jurisprudential sects regarding the concept of the "saved sect" (al-firqat al-nājiya), as mentioned in the hadith concerning the division of seventy-two sects. We argue that while Sunni sects, in contrast to Shias, maintain that they collectively constitute a single sect, their various subgroups, such as the People of Hadith (ahl al-ḥadīth), People of Opinion (ahl al-raʾy), Muʿtazilites, Ashʿarites, Māturidis, and jurisprudential schools, perceive themselves as the "saved sect," while considering other sects as being “perished (hālika) sects.” Furthermore, we explore the varying interpretations among Sunni scholars regarding the concept of "perish" (halāka) mentioned in the hadith of the "saved sect." These interpretations encompass possibilities such as disbelief or eternal confinement in hell.

A controversial and challenging issue in the history of Islamic theological and mystical thoughts revolves around the concept of "seeing God." Different Islamic sects and denominations hold diverse opinions on this matter, and even scholars within a single sect may disagree. Comparative studies play a crucial role in addressing controversies among different sects, and thus, this fundamental research utilizes the method of comparative textual study. The focus of this study is on two books, namely Sharḥ al-masāʾil wa-l-wasāʾil fī l-ishārāt wa-l-dalāʾil and Tafsīr al-mīzān, to provide a comparative analysis of the perspectives of al-Muqīmī al-Dīnawarī and Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʾī. The research reveals the following findings (1) Both al-Dīnawarī and Ṭabāṭabāʾī posit that God can be seen in the hereafter. However, Ṭabāṭabāʾī emphasizes that this vision will occur through the eyes of the heart. (2) Al-Dīnawarī maintains that only the Prophet has seen God in this world using his physical eyes, attributing this vision to divine grace and existential unity, rather than personal efforts. On the other hand, Ṭabāṭabāʾī suggests that even the Prophet's seeing of God in this world was intuitive in nature. (3) Al-Dīnawarī believes that, under specific circumstances, it is conceivable to see God in this world using physical eyes. In contrast, Ṭabāṭabāʾī argues that the physical vision of God is impossible in this world.

This research aims to provide a typology of Islamist Sunni Kurdish movements that have emerged in Kurdistan, Iran, in the aftermath of the Islamic Revolution. The study utilizes a descriptive-analytical approach, drawing upon extensive library sources and interviews with experts who possess in-depth knowledge of the field and the historical developments in Kurdistan. By employing these research methods, the paper endeavors to shed light on the diverse typology of current movements within Kurdistan, Iran. Major intellectual movements are the Quran School, Salafists, and Iranian Call and Reform Organization. These movements have both social and intellectual origins. The Quran School, established by Ahmad Moftizadeh, aims to advocate for Kurdish rights through political means. The Iranian Call and Reform Organization draws inspiration from the Muslim Brotherhood and engages in political activism with a moderate and law-abiding approach. Salafists hold the belief that the early Islamic community represents the ideal society, leading them to vehemently oppose various aspects of the present society. In their pursuit of these goals, they may sometimes adopt radical methods. The Sufi movement, on the other hand, is focused on individualistic spiritual practices and practical mysticism. They emphasize personal purification and place importance on following a spiritual leader to adhere to Islamic principles and divine commands.

The concept of infallibility (ʿiṣma) in relation to the prophets is a significant topic in theology. In Imami belief, it is generally held that, despite minor disagreements, the prophets are considered to be free from errors or mistakes. However, there are instances where certain religious texts seem to present contradictions regarding the extent of this infallibility. As a result, Muslim scholars throughout history have made efforts to reconcile and address these apparent discrepancies. The first verse of Surah al-Tahrim, in which Prophet Muhammad is reproached, is one such text that seems to contradict the highest degrees of infallibility in the case of the Prophet. Various explanations of this verse have been offered, some of which try to deny and interpret away the reprimand. Drawing upon principles such as the Prophet’s human nature, adjudication based on appearances, ruling based on commonsensical principles, reliance on personal discretion in social interests, prevention of the worse by the bad, and the like, we provide a reformulation of the belief in the “abandonment of the better” (tark al-awlā) and support it by evidence. With a moderate view of the two-dimensional (human and divine) nature of the prophets, we argue that abandoning the better is a human dimension, which does not contradict the notion of infallibility.

Salafists and scholars of kalām (theologians) disagree over several issues regarding divine attributes, including  the interpretation of Quranic verses about divine attributes in terms of qualitative meanings. Muslim theologians believe that such an interpretation contradicts the exalted or immaculate nature of God, while Salafists refer to certain exegeses provided by earlier scholars to support the notion of qualitative meanings in the interpretation of Quranic verses about divine attributes. One notable example is Mālik b. Anas's interpretation of the Verse of Istiwāʾ (Settlement). Salafists cite interpretations attributed to Mālik, suggesting that he attributed qualities to God, implying that God's "settlement" on the Throne (al-ʿArsh) can be understood as a literal ascension and physical presence on the Throne. However, a careful examination of ten chains of transmission for the interpretation of the Verse of Settlement attributed to Mālik reveals issues concerning both the reliability of the transmission chains and the implications of the interpretation. Only two of these chains are considered reliable, and even in those cases, Mālik, while deferring the interpretation of the verse to God Himself, seeks to exalt God by avoiding any attribution of qualitative meanings to Him.

There is no doubt that the Abbasid era stands out as one of the most remarkable and illustrious periods in Islamic civilization. This distinction can be attributed to various factors, with the Muʿtazilite school of thought playing a pivotal role by promoting rationalism in scholarly discourse. Utilizing the descriptive-analytic approach, this article explores the relationship between the Muʿtazilites and the Abbasid government, with a specific focus on the impact of Muʿtazilite theologians within the Abbasid court and the patronage they received from the caliphs' political authority. Additionally, we delve into the origins of Muʿtazilite rationalism and examine the various factors that contributed to the significant influence of the Muʿtazilites in fostering the growth and development of Islamic civilization during the Abbasid era. The Muʿtazilites made significant contributions in several areas, including scholarly debates, engaging with non-Muslim scholars, establishing scholarly and cultural centers, and promoting the role of reason in Islamic theology. These endeavors played a crucial role in promoting argumentative reason within the Islamic community during the Abbasid era. As a result, the civilization thrived and flourished through rationalism.

The emergence of new perspectives on social issues within Islamic communities, influenced by the legacy of rationalist movements in the Arab world, indicates the modernization of traditional Islamic theology. Hassan Hanafi, a prominent contemporary Arab intellectual, has undertaken a philosophical examination of the issue, seeking to establish a bridge between the existing heritage and contemporary perspectives and theologies. His aim is to lay the groundwork for a contemporary theology. The project method is a civilizational and neo-Muʿtazilite approach that aims to establish a dominant theological discourse and provide a distinct identity to it. Traditional and modern theologies are two approaches that can be seen in Hanafi’s ideas. His objective is to shed light on the limitations of traditional theology in relation to social structures, contemporary perspectives, the future, as well as linguistic and discursive insufficiencies. In contrast, he seeks to draw upon the main theological principles to establish a new perspective given the discursive foundations. Traditional theology is commonly regarded as a supernatural theology that was suited to the early stages of Islamic civilization. Hanafi, on the other hand, endeavors to reshape it into a theology that is relevant and meaningful in the present era, aligning it with the evolving Islamic civilization of today. This research is grounded in theological principles and origins and employs discourse analysis as its primary method. It draws upon a range of theoretical frameworks, including Nietzschean-Foucauldian archeology and genealogy, as well as structuralist, constructivist, and phenomenological approaches.

The excommunication (takfīr) of individuals who curse the Sahaba (the companions of the Prophet) is a topic of controversy within the Islamic world. According to this perspective, it is believed that any Muslim who engages in such cursing is thereby expelled from the fold of Islam. In contrast, there are others who hold that while it is prohibited to curse the Sahaba, such an action does not lead to the excommunication of the individual who engages in it. Given that the cursing of the Sahaba has been used as a justification for the persecution and killing of Muslims, it is essential to thoroughly examine this matter. Hence, it is of utmost importance to examine whether cursing the Sahaba results in apostasy from Islam. This study adopts an analytic-critical approach, utilizing Sunni sources, to scrutinize the arguments put forth by proponents of the excommunication perspective. The findings of this study lead to the conclusion that although cursing the Sahaba is prohibited, it does not result in excommunication from Islam.

The interpretation of the Verses of Iẓhār al-Dīn (Prevalence of the Religion) has sparked extensive debates regarding the future global leadership and the concept of the "Promised al-Mahdī." These verses have been subject to interpretation by Quranic exegetes and scholars from different jurisprudential schools, resulting in a diverse range of approaches. This comparative study utilizes the descriptive-analytic method to delve into the exegeses of the Verses of "Iẓhār" as per Imami and Ibadi interpretations. The study also takes into account the hadiths from the Prophet and Imam ʿAlī agreed upon by both sects. The objective is to analyze the implications of these verses, from both Imami and Ibadi perspectives, in relation to the end of history. The article concludes that the Ibadi concept of Mahdism, shaped by their distinctive understanding of the Imamate, does not adhere to, and in fact rejects, the notion of the Promised al-Mahdī and an apocalyptic savior. However, Imami exegetes emphasize the divine promise of the future appearance of Imam al-Mahdī. Taking into account the literal meaning of the word "al-iẓhār," as well as other intellectual and textual evidence, it is understood that the complete and widespread dominance of Islam over other religions will occur during the period of the "reappearance" (ẓuhūr) under the leadership of Imam al-Mahdī (a), who belongs to the Prophet's Household and possesses a special connection to the Quran. A rational interpretation of these verses is yielded by referencing hadiths from Shiite Imams.

Following the demise of Prophet Muhammad (s), disagreements arose among Muslim scholars regarding crucial matters such as the caliphate, and fundamental beliefs including divine attributes, fate (qaḍāʾ) and predestination (qadar), the nature of good and evil, predetermination (jabr), and free will. These disputes gave rise to various sects and denominations within Islam. Consequently, the field of kalām or theology emerged, encompassing diverse theological sects such as the Muʿtazilites, Ashʿarites, Shias, and Ismāʿilis, as well as different jurisprudential schools such as the Shāfiʿiyya, Mālikiyya, Ḥanbaliyya, Ḥanafiyya, and Shiism. These theological disagreements constitute a significant portion of Islamic history over the course of centuries. Prominent Persian poets often aligned themselves with specific theological and jurisprudential schools of thought, which influenced their poetic expressions. They openly expressed their affirmations or rejections of various theological beliefs within their poems, giving rise to what could be called the "denominational discourse" within Persian poetry. To fully grasp the meaning and significance of these poems, it is essential to possess a comprehensive understanding of the beliefs and ideologies they embraced. This article focuses on examining three prominent theological schools present in Islamic civilization: Shiism, Muʿtazilism, and Ashʿarism. Furthermore, we provide a brief overview of the jurisprudential beliefs held by various poets. Subsequently, we present selected samples of poetry composed by renowned poets that reflect their theological perspectives.

One of the fundamental principles of the Baktashi Order is the concept of the four spiritual gates: sharia, the path (tariqa), knowledge (maʿrifa), and truth (ḥaqīqa). These gates hold significant importance in the diwan (poetry collection) of Yunus Emre, who is considered a pioneer of Baktashi literature. Yunus Emre's profound yet accessible language, combined with the spiritual impact and widespread presence of his poems in Baktashi takyas, motivated us to undertake a comprehensive exploration of his perspective on the four Baktashi gates. To accomplish this, we employed a library-based approach, coupled with analytical methods. According to Yunus Emre's perspective, the culmination of Sufism is achieved by traversing these four gates. He asserts that Sharia serves as the legal gateway, providing a framework for the truth. Tariqa, or the path, represents a unique connection with an enlightened guide or master. The gate of knowledge signifies the stage of the heart and love. Lastly, the gate of truth represents the highest level of humanity, at which pure divine unity is grasped

Muslim Sufis consider their tradition as the heritage of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS), especially Imam Ali (AS), and consider them as the great shaykhs and founders of their way. Nevertheless, because Sufism emerged ang grows up in a non-Shiite context and, it has known as a Sunni religion. Recognition of this duality in the Sufi belief, that is adherence to Sunni Religion and Shiite originality, seems to be a fundamental issue for understanding the Sufi thought; Therefore, this research wants to answer two questions: First, what is the Sufi’s emotional-ideological approach to the Ahl al-Bayt (AS), especially Imam Ali (AS) and his speech in Persian mystical texts until the end of ninth century? And what is the tendency and devotion to the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) among the Sufis? The present study, which has been prepared in an analytical-descriptive approach and based on library studies, proves that Sufism has an evolutionary course that consists of a neutral encounter with the Innocents (AS) and the alikeness of Imams with others, and then a slight elaboration of the Ahl al-Bayt. (AS) begins and gradually reaches the peak of devotion and compassion to them and finally to Shiism.

The Abbasids infiltrated the network of Hashimite and Kaysanite activists, eventually seizing power in Khorasan. With the military support of Abū Muslim al-Khurāsānī, they incited riots that undermined and ultimately led to the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty. A key faction within Abū Muslim's military forces, known as the "Rāwandiyya," played a pivotal role in assisting the Abbasids. However, upon assuming power, the Abbasids needed ideological support to justify the transfer of Imamate and leadership from the Hashimites to the Abbasids. The Rāwandiyya actively contributed to this endeavor, expediting the process of transferring the Imamate from Muḥammad Ḥanafiyya to Ibrāhīm al-Imām, and subsequently to the Abbasids. With their distinctive perspectives, the Rāwandiyya portrayed the Imamate and leadership by tracing the Abbasid genealogy back through the Prophet to ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbbās. According to historical sources, there were individuals among the Rāwandiyya who held extremist views and were referred to as exaggerators. These individuals believed that al-Manṣūr al-ʿAbbāsī (Al-Mansur the Caliph) was their deity. Despite these beliefs, the Hashimites remained aligned with al-Mansur, underscoring the significance of the Rāwandis in the eyes of the Abbasid caliphs. This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to demonstrate that the Rāwandis made substantial contributions, both in military engagements and by providing doctrinal views. Consequently, they played a pivotal role in facilitating the transfer and consolidation of power within the Abbasid dynasty.

This research focuses on the concept of moral rationality as elaborated by Ibn al-Taymiyya and Mullā Ṣadrā. Given that moral rationalism emphasizes the coherence of action and its consequences, as well as rational principles, we aim to compare and contrast the views of these two scholars in the following ways: A) endorsing the full dependence of morality on religion, Ibn al-Taymiyya’s view is close to the so-called divine command theory (or religious goodness and badness), and in the realm of moral action, he has developed a version of religious deontologism; B) drawing upon the conceptual distinction and co-instantiation of religion and morality, Mullā Ṣadrā espoused the so-called natural law theory (or rational goodness and badness), and in the realm of moral action, he tends towards the virtue theory. However, upon final analysis, Mullā Ṣadrā's approach appears to be more favorable. This is because it recognizes the inherent value and autonomy of moral life, while also acknowledging the experiential dimensions of morality.

Today, criminal intervention in the domain of private law is deemed unavoidable. Despite facing opposition, Iranian legislators firmly hold the belief that merely imposing restrictions on individuals' volition is insufficient. Through the implementation of criminal enforcement measures, they strive to safeguard the broader societal interests. Criminal intervention in contractual relations between contracting parties serves two primary purposes firstly, to ensure compliance with established legal procedures, and secondly, to prevent the misuse of contracts as a means to evade debt obligations. However, it is crucial to recognize that criminal intervention in individuals' private relations is restricted by the principles of freedom and self-determination. Appealing to criminal enforcement should be considered a last resort. Therefore, the application of criminal enforcement requires a reasoned approach. This research aims to elucidate the foundations and principles underlying the criminalization of legal actions by employing the analytical-descriptive methodology. The research findings indicate that the rules pertaining to the preservation of order, the principle of non-harm, and the principle of exigency and emergency can be regarded as the textual and theoretical foundations for the criminalization of legal actions.